Thexar-IV: The-Sha-Ruun — Sha-El 06: Sha-Ven Rass — Evidentiality
"In the Xha'Ruun language, you cannot simply say 'it is raining.' You must say: 'I see that it is raining,' or 'I was told that it is raining,' or 'it appears to be raining.' A source helps us question a fact; it does not replace the fact." — Academic of Semantics, Khal-Ven
Mor-ven: Evidentiality marks how a speaker obtained a claim. Finite declarative predicates distinguish direct observation, inference, report and quotation. A speaker may accurately identify a source yet be mistaken, or lie with a grammatically correct ending.
6.1 Four Types of Evidentiality
| Type | Suffix | Meaning | Example |
|---|---|---|---|
| Direct | -ven | I see or hear it myself | khal-en-ven — “does; I observe it” |
| Inferential | -zal | I infer it | khal-en-zal — “apparently does” |
| Reportative | -mor | I relay a report | khal-en-mor — “I was told it is done” |
| Quotative | -thar | I quote someone’s words | khal-en-thar — “does”, quoted |
Direct -ven includes hearing as well as seeing. Inference takes -zal, report -mor and quotation -thar. Source and reliability are separate: a witness may be mistaken, and a second-hand report may be true.
6.2 Obligatoriness
Source marking is required in finite declarative predicates, not automatically on every word, question or brief answer.
Noun phrases carry case; source occupies the final slot of a declarative predicate. Reportative -mor differs from quotative -thar. A quotation marker alone does not authenticate a recording’s authorship.
6.3 Evidentiality and Grammar
Interacts with other categories:
- With tense — the inferential in the past tense marks a retrospective inference
- With negation — negation may fall within the scope of evidentiality ("I see that it is not...")
- With interrogativity — in questions, evidentiality indicates the expected source of the answer
6.4 Cultural Significance
Not only grammar, but also a cultural norm:
- Science — requires an explicit indication of the source of data
- Law — distinguishes eyewitness testimony from retelling
- Religion — sacred texts marked by direct evidentiality ("I see") or reportative ("transmitted")
Language reflects and shapes culture: the obligatoriness of the source of knowledge is a principle built into speech itself.
Ruun Ven
- Four types: direct -ven, inference -zal, report -mor, quotation -thar.
- Source is required in finite declarative predicates.
- It interacts with tense, negation, interrogativity.
- A source marker does not guarantee truth.
- It marks direct/reported speech.