Xha'Ruun Grammar — Complete Reference
1. Typology
- Type: Agglutinative, suffixal
- Word Order: SOV (Subject-Object-Verb)
- Head: Head-final (modifiers precede nouns, auxiliaries follow verbs)
- Writing: Right-to-left, top-to-bottom
2. Phonology
- Consonants: 24
- Vowels: 8 (with length distinction)
- Syllable: (C)(C)V(C)(C)
- Stress: Dynamic, on first syllable of root
3. Morphology
3.1 Structure of the Word
Root-(derivation)-(number)-(case) | Root-(derivation)-tense-evidentiality
3.2 Numbers (3)
| Number | Suffix | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Singular | -∅ | ruun (person) |
| Dual | -sha | ruun-sha (two people) |
| Plural | -ak | ruun-ak (people) |
3.3 Cases (14)
| # | Case | Suffix | Meaning |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Nominative | -∅ | Subject (intrans.) |
| 2 | Ergative | -sha | Subject (trans.) |
| 3 | Accusative | -thar | Direct object |
| 4 | Dative | -ven | To/for |
| 5 | Genitive | -mor | Of/possession |
| 6 | Instrumental | -khal | By/with (tool) |
| 7 | Comitative | -rass | Together with |
| 8 | Ablative | -tor | From/origin |
| 9 | Inessive | -the | In/inside |
| 10 | Superessive | -vex | On/atop |
| 11 | Allative | -khar | Toward |
| 12 | Translative | -el | Become/turn into |
| 13 | Essive | -en | As/in capacity of |
| 14 | Terminative | -mor-thal | Until/up to |
3.4 Tenses (4)
| Tense | Suffix | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Past | -ak | khal-ak (did) |
| Present | -en | khal-en (does) |
| Future | -mor | khal-mor (will do) |
| Timeless | -el | khal-el (does always) |
3.5 Evidentiality (4 — mandatory)
| Type | Suffix | Meaning |
|---|---|---|
| Direct | -ven | Direct sensory evidence |
| Indirect | -sha | Indirect sensory |
| Inferential | -tor | Logical conclusion |
| Reportative | -rass | Hearsay/reported |
3.6 Negation
Prefix mor- to the verb.
3.7 Example Paradigm
Root: khal (do/live)
| Form | Gloss | Meaning |
|---|---|---|
| khal-en-ven | do-PRS-DIR | does (I see) |
| khal-ak-ven | do-PST-DIR | did (I saw) |
| mor-khal-en-ven | NEG-do-PRS-DIR | doesn't do |
| khal-en-tor | do-PRS-INFR | must be doing |
| ruun-ak-sha | people-PL-ERG | people (agent) |
| ruun-ak-thar | people-PL-ACC | people (object) |
| ruun-ak-ven | people-PL-DAT | to/for people |
4. Syntax
4.1 Simple Sentence
SOV: Xha'ruun-sha the-thar khal-en-ven (People-ERG earth-ACC do-PRS-DIR) "The people work the earth."
4.2 Questions
Question particle -ven? at the end, or question words:
- Who? Sha-ven? (person-truth)
- What? The-ven? (thing-truth)
- Where? The-khar? (earth-allative)
- When? Mor-ven? (time-truth)
- Why? Ven-thar? (truth-accusative)
- How? Khal-ven? (action-truth)
4.3 Complex Sentences
Conjunctions:
- and: rass
- or: ven-tor (truth-from)
- but: rass-mor (unity-negation)
- because: ven-tor (truth-from)
4.4 Relative Clauses
Relative clause precedes the noun, with verb in participial form (-an suffix): the-thar khal-an ruun — "the person who works the earth" (earth-ACC do-ADJ person)
5. Writing System
- Type: Mixed syllabary + logograms
- Direction: Right-to-left, top-to-bottom
- Basic syllabary: 124 signs
- Logograms: 48
- Numerals: Base-6 (0–5)
- PUA Unicode: U+E000-U+E30F